Genetically modified organisms, GMOs, are organisms that have their genome altered through various techniques. These techniques are collectively termed genetic engineering. Among the most well applications of these processes are in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products and foods. A transgenic organism is a form of GMO where the modification that has been undertaken is the addition of genetic material obtained from an unrelated organism. Using a genetically engineered organelle is the new frontier.
The nucleus has been the main target for genetic modification for many years. With advancing research, it has become evident that a number of processes can be undertaken on other organelles to achieve the same results. The organelles that have emerged as the most ideal are chloroplasts and mitochondria. Chloroplasts are only present in plants but mitochondria can be found in both plants and animals cells.
Mitochondria are arguably the second most important organelles in cells only second to the nucleus. Their absence within the cell means that the cell will be unable to produce energy essential for most of its processes. While alternative methods of respiration may exist, these are only effective for a limited period of time beyond which the entire cell is likely to die. Mitochondria have their own genome though it is a lot smaller than what is found in the nucleus.
One of the theories that have been advanced to explain the presence of genetic material in mitochondria proposes that they were initially independent primitive organisms. They were largely parasitic depending on other unicellular organisms for most of their functions. As they evolved over thousands of years, some of their genome was lost and they could, therefore, not exist on their own. They entered the cell and started a symbiotic relationship. This theory has also been used for chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are vital to the process of photosynthesis. This is a process that occurs in green plants and involves the use of sunlight energy in food production by a plant cell. These structures have also been established to also play a vital role in processes such as fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis and mounting immune responses by the cells. Chloroplasts posses a DNA that takes on a circular conformation in most cells. Genetic modification of this DNA is passed on to daughter cells through inheritance.
Genome modification involves several steps. The first is gene isolation. This is where the desired gene is identified and obtained either from another cell or by synthesis. Several copies of genes have been studied and isolated and are now available in the genetic library. This may serve as an alternative source. Addition of various elements such as promoter and terminator regions makes the gene active.
The next step is to insert the gene into the organelle (chloroplast or mitochondria). One of the commonest techniques used is to subject the cell to some form of stress such as thermal energy or electric current. This works best for bacterial (prokaryotic) cells. For animal cells, the preferred methods are what is known as microinjection as well as delivery by viral vectors. Techniques used for plants may include electroporation, biolistics and agrobacteria mediated recombination.
When genetic material is introduced into a cell, it is only this cell that is effected. There is a need to propagate this cell so as to make sure the effects are evident at the level of the organism. This is usually achieved by taking plant cells through a process known as tissue culture. In animals, stem cells are provided with favourable conditions for cell division. The cells are studied to ensure that the transfer process has taken place.
The nucleus has been the main target for genetic modification for many years. With advancing research, it has become evident that a number of processes can be undertaken on other organelles to achieve the same results. The organelles that have emerged as the most ideal are chloroplasts and mitochondria. Chloroplasts are only present in plants but mitochondria can be found in both plants and animals cells.
Mitochondria are arguably the second most important organelles in cells only second to the nucleus. Their absence within the cell means that the cell will be unable to produce energy essential for most of its processes. While alternative methods of respiration may exist, these are only effective for a limited period of time beyond which the entire cell is likely to die. Mitochondria have their own genome though it is a lot smaller than what is found in the nucleus.
One of the theories that have been advanced to explain the presence of genetic material in mitochondria proposes that they were initially independent primitive organisms. They were largely parasitic depending on other unicellular organisms for most of their functions. As they evolved over thousands of years, some of their genome was lost and they could, therefore, not exist on their own. They entered the cell and started a symbiotic relationship. This theory has also been used for chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are vital to the process of photosynthesis. This is a process that occurs in green plants and involves the use of sunlight energy in food production by a plant cell. These structures have also been established to also play a vital role in processes such as fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis and mounting immune responses by the cells. Chloroplasts posses a DNA that takes on a circular conformation in most cells. Genetic modification of this DNA is passed on to daughter cells through inheritance.
Genome modification involves several steps. The first is gene isolation. This is where the desired gene is identified and obtained either from another cell or by synthesis. Several copies of genes have been studied and isolated and are now available in the genetic library. This may serve as an alternative source. Addition of various elements such as promoter and terminator regions makes the gene active.
The next step is to insert the gene into the organelle (chloroplast or mitochondria). One of the commonest techniques used is to subject the cell to some form of stress such as thermal energy or electric current. This works best for bacterial (prokaryotic) cells. For animal cells, the preferred methods are what is known as microinjection as well as delivery by viral vectors. Techniques used for plants may include electroporation, biolistics and agrobacteria mediated recombination.
When genetic material is introduced into a cell, it is only this cell that is effected. There is a need to propagate this cell so as to make sure the effects are evident at the level of the organism. This is usually achieved by taking plant cells through a process known as tissue culture. In animals, stem cells are provided with favourable conditions for cell division. The cells are studied to ensure that the transfer process has taken place.
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